Lazarus, Canon-Bard, James-Lange, and Schacter-Singer theories of emotion; Canine senses and how they relate to canine emotion.
Throughout our day, we experience feelings, both strong and subtle. We refer to these internal reactions, triggered by things happening around us or within ourselves, as our emotions, which are made up of several key parts:
a) physiological arousal linked to events within the autonomic nervous system (ANS) in response to various stimuli; the ANS is responsible for controlling involuntary bodily functions, and it consists of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) linked to the "fight or flight" response during stressful or threatening situations, and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) for relaxation and the recovery of standard levels of activity after the threat has passed.
Physiological arousal has a plus or minus value:
· Increased/decreased heart rate and blood pressure
· Rapid breathing or hyperventilation/slow breathing
· Sweating/no sweating
· Pupil dilation/pupil constriction
· Muscle tension/muscle relaxation
· Dry mouth/normal salivation
These reactions are linked to negative stimuli and stress, but also positive excitement, and physical exercise. How people feel emotionally and how they think and interprets the world around them will have an impact on their emotional state which in turn will affect their cognitive functions, their decision-making ability, their memory and attention.
b) psychological appraisal which is the process by which we evaluate and interpret an event or situation and determine how it affects us: is it irrelevant, benign-positive, threatening, or challenging? Our appraisal influences our emotional response, and it determines how we cope with the object of our appraisal.
Our initial emotional response often involves a quick judgment: is this situation a threat, a challenge, or a source of harm or loss? This is known as primary appraisal. However, our emotions don't stop there. We then enter a secondary appraisal, where we take stock of our resources and coping mechanisms to figure out how best to deal with the potential stressor.
c) subjective experience[JG1] .
Darwin saw emotions as social bonds and adaptation aids, shared among all mammals.
In The Descent of Man by Charles Darwin, we read that “the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, is certainly one of degree and not of kind.” (Darwin, 1871, vol. 1, p. 105). Recent scientific research went as far as suggesting that animals possess self-awareness and complex emotions, which traditionally has been considered unconceivable. The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness (2012) signed by prominent neuroscientists, including Panksepp, acknowledges the possibility of non-human animals having conscious experiences. In it we read that“The absence of a neocortex does not appear to preclude an organism from experiencing affective states. Convergent evidence indicates that non-human animals have the neuroanatomical, neurochemical, and neurophysiological substrates of conscious states along with the capacity to exhibit intentional behaviors. Consequently, the weight of evidence indicates that humans are not unique in possessing the neurological substrates that generate consciousness. Non-human animals, including all mammals and birds, and many other creatures, including octopuses†, also possess these neurological substrates.”.[1]
In the 60s, American physician and neuroscientist MacLean's triune brain theory delineated three brain components: the reptilian, limbic, and neocortical brains, found across various species, each with distinct functions. Primary emotions, inherent and instinctual, like fear and joy, are associated with the evolutionarily ancient limbic system, particularly the amygdala, where rapid, instinctual responses to stimuli, without the need for conscious thought are orchestrated.[2] In contrast, more complex secondary emotions, like regret or jealousy, involve higher cerebral cortex processing and are not automatic[JG2] .[3]
There are different ideas about how emotions work. Here are the main ones:
Physiological theories/ Body First: our body reacts first, then we feel the emotion
Neurological theories/ Brain First: the brain is in charge, sees the event and tells our body to react emotionally
Cognitive theories/ Thought Matter: assessing an event cognitively plays an essential role in forming emotions.
Within these three main categories, there are even more specific theories scientists have come up for how emotions work. Some of the most famous ones include:
Evolutionary Theory: This idea, proposed by Charles Darwin, says emotions helped our ancestors survive and reproduce. Just as physical traits, emotions like fear (avoiding danger) or happiness (seeking rewards) became more common because they were helpful for the survival and reproductive success of species. [4]
James-Lange Theory, Cannon-Bard Theory, Schachter-Singer Theory, Lazarus Cognitive Appraisal Theory:These are more specific ideas about how the three components of emotions, (body, brain, and thoughts) work together to create them[JG3] .
James-Lange Theory
This is a physiological theory. Psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange thought that emotions originate from the physiological reaction of our body to a stimulus; if a dog sees his owner holding his leash, his heart rate and breathing rate increases, his tail starts wagging and these body arousals create the feeling of excitement.
So, according to this theory, there is an equation between the dog's emotion of excitement and his physiological response. Although this theory starts to suggest a link between what our body does and how we feel, of course identical physiological responses can be linked to similar or even opposite emotions, for example fear or excitement both link to increased heart rate.[5]
The Cannon-Bard
Another physiological explanation of emotion was developed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard. According to them, there isn’t a ‘body first - emotion second’ sequence. The two occur simultaneously. When a dog meets a new person, he simultaneously feels fear and shows physiological signs of fear (like growling, piloerection, or cowering).[6]
Schachter-Singer Theory
Also called the two-factor theory of emotion, this theory sees cognitive interpretation of arousal and physiological arousal as ingredients for emotions. Essentially, to have an emotional experience we need to feel arousal but also interpret and label it based on the context we find ourselves in. Physical arousal alone would not be enough on its own and specific emotions spring from our cognitive interpretations of the arousal.
A dog hears a knock at the door and starts barking. According to Schachter-Singer, whether the dog feels fear or excitement will depend on his interpretation of the knock, which could be influenced by several variables: past experiences (it is that time of the day when his favourite dog trainer comes to pick him up), the presence of the owner, or other contextual cues. A racing heart can correspond to fear or excitement, but our brain scans the environment in search of cues and in so doing, it helps us decide why the physiological arousal is happening.
And upon this interpretation it will determine whether the dog will feel fear or excitement.[7]
The Lazarus theory (1991) of emotion also speaks of physiological response and cognitive appraisal, but it emphasizes the importance of the latter in determining what type of emotion we experience. First, we asses a situation cognitively, then we feel an emotion which will cause our physiological response to occur. For instance, if a situation is interpreted as a threat, we may experience fear or anxiety and our heart rate will increase; if we see it as a challenge, we may feel motivation or excitement, but also in this scenario there will be an increase in heart rate. This theory tells us that not only different emotions can cause the same physiological response, but also that each one of us appraise the world around us often differently, based on our experience and personality etc. So there seem to be four ingredients that need to be present in the following set sequence: a stimulus (internal or external), the cognitive appraisal of that stimulus, the emotional response that springs from this appraisal and then the physiological response that goes with that emotion.[8]
The dog owner approaches his house, the dog hears the noise and based on his experience (his body clock) and other environmental cues (smell), he recognises the signs of a positive event about to take place, he will feel excitement and happiness and as a result there will be tail wagging, jumping and barking. Highlighting the importance of cognitive appraisal in shaping our emotions and ultimately our behaviours is very interesting because it allows focus on the fundamental elements of cognitive appraisal itself such, as experience, personality, mood, age, health and it acknowledges their crucial role in the emotion-behaviour circuit.
A bouncy energetic fly-happily-in-your-face spaniel may look harmless, but he might be cognitively appraised negatively by a dog, regardless of size, who needs space and more time to process new introductions based on previous bad experiences or a more cautious personality: dog sees spaniel bouncing at speed towards him + he interprets this event as negative based on experience/personality/mood/age/health conditions, he feels fear, he externalises his fear by displaying distance increasing signals that vary in type and intensity. Recognising that every dog has its own unique background and way of seeing the world, which shapes their reactions, should encourage us to be more empathetic and careful when deciding how to interact with and introduce dogs to each other, for example[JG4] .
Below is an illustration summarising the four approaches in understanding how emotions originate[JG5] . [9]
Whilst the Cannon-Bard and James-Lange theories can explain the more immediate reactions, the Lazarus and Schacter-Singer theories help us with more complex responses. They can all help in our interpretations of animal behavior, even if we stay away from over-attributing human-like emotions to non-human animals.
Behavior is what we can observe of a complex process through which we register and interpret both external sensory input, and emotional and physiological factors. This process takes place internally within and thanks to the complex mechanisms of the nervous system, and it is important to acknowledge that there are a lot of similarities between the anatomy and the functional areas of the human brain and that of dogs. Both species share a part of the brain called limbic system, which is involved in behavioural and emotional responses, and is made of common structures: the thalamus and the hypothalamus which produce essential hormones that regulate thirst, hunger, mood etc; basal ganglia involved in reward processing, the formation of habits, movement and learning; the hippocampus essential for memory formation and long-term memory storage, for associations and for special orientation, for neurogenesis and therefore brain plasticity; the amygdala which is central to the processing of emotional responses such as fear, anxiety, anger and pleasure.[10]
When it comes to comparing human and canine senses, it is crucial to highlight similarities but also distinctions, which aids us in comprehending how dogs perceive their surroundings, often quite differently from us[JG6] .
Unlike humans, dogs don't perceive the complete spectrum of colours; instead, they excel at detecting motion from afar rather than stationary objects up close. Dogs see the world in a similar way to someone with red-green colour blindness. This means reds might appear muted, like gray or brown. Yellows, oranges, and greens would all look like different shades of yellow to them. Additionally, violets wouldn't be distinct and would appear more like a shade of blue.This should guide our choice of colour in toys or surfaces with which the dog must interact; we should also think of contrasting colours: yellow on green will not be detected easily, strange that in agility yellow contact areas on grass are considered acceptable.
A dog’s eye can process shapes, but this does not mean knowing what the shape is; hence the importance of familiarisation in general; [11]
Their distinctive ear shapes and control over the pinna allow them to sense triggers before we're even aware of them. Breeds with erect ears tend to be better ad localisation and hearing in the distance than floppy ear breeds.
Still in relation to the canine auditory system, a study supported by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that both dogs and humans use similar parts of their brains to understand emotions in voices. This suggests that both species pay attention to the same sound qualities in voices that tell us how someone is feeling.[12]
Although taste is the first sense to develop in puppyhood, a dog’s taste sensitivity is not as refined as humans'—allowing them to consume a variety of unimaginable items! They have only 1700 taste buds compared to the 9000 in humans, but they do possess a keener ability to taste water, sometimes leading them to abstain from drinking.
And, of course, we are all familiar with dogs' remarkable sense of smell: 300 million olfactory receptors compared to only 5 million in humans; and the additional vomeronasal organ positioned on the roof of their mouth which is specialised in detecting pheromones… an additional tool to help them read emotions[JG7] .
[1] "Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness" (2012)
[2] Lisa Feldman Barrett's ground-breaking theories challenge conventional wisdom by proposing a new perspective on emotion generation and the amygdala's role. Feldmann Barrett suggests that emotions are not solely hardwired into specific brain regions but are instead dynamically constructed by the brain based on context, past experiences, and learning. For a long time, scientists have believed that the amygdala is essential for experiencing and perceiving fear. Research conducted in the 1990s on a patient with a rare amygdala condition initially supported this view. However, Feldman Barrett thinks the function of the amygdala is more intricate and its role is to alert the rest of the brain to information that is crucial for allostasis -- the brain's method of predicting and fulfilling the body's needs before they occur. Whether the information is threatening, rewarding, or new, it aids the brain in better anticipating future events., L.F. (2017) How emotions are made: The secret life of the brain. Pan Macmillan.
[3] Bekoff, M. (2008) The emotional lives of animals: Marc Bekoff. Novato: New world library.
[4] Innes Lecture 2023 - ‘Darwin and the evolution of emotions’ with dr Paul White (2023a) YouTube. Available
at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFSN8C3fDvI (Accessed: 28 May 2024).
Minutes: 17:57 - 18:30 / 45 - 48 / 55:20 - 56:20
[5]Theories of emotion explained (2019) YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qDYz32srgsU (Accessed: 28 May 2024). Minutes 0:41 - 1:44
Lolliot, S. et al. (2021a) Emotion, Introduction to Psychology A critical approach.
Available at: https://pressbooks.cuny.edu/jsevitt/chapter/emotion
[6] Ibid, Minutes 0:42 – 2:35.
[7] Ibid, Minutes 2:36 – 3:33
[8] Ibid, Minutes 3:34 – 4:35
[9] Lolliot, S. et al. (2021a) Emotion, Introduction to Psychology A critical approach.
Available at: https://pressbooks.cuny.edu/jsevitt/chapter/emotion
[10] The limbic system (2023) Queensland Brain Institute - University of Queensland.
Available at: https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system
[11] https://www.thewildest.com/dog-lifestyle/what-colors-do-dogs-see
[12] Andics, A. et al. (2014) ‘Voice-sensitive regions in the dog and human brain are revealed by comparative fmri’, Current Biology, 24(5), pp. 574–578. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.01.058.
